Italian dialects: exploring Italy’s rich linguistic diversity

Italy is a country of extraordinary diversity, not only from a cultural, culinary, or artistic perspective but also – and perhaps most importantly – from a linguistic one. The linguistic landscape of Italy is astonishingly rich, with a tapestry of regional dialects and distinct languages. According to UNESCO, there are 31 Italian dialects (languages) spoken across the country, while Ethnologue raises that number to 34.

Beyond the numbers, the true complexity lies in understanding what we commonly call “dialects”. These aren’t merely regional variations of the official national language, Italian. Instead, many are fully-fledged languages in their own right, each with unique characteristics that set them apart. In fact, some are so different that, for example, if a Sardinian were to converse in Sardinian with someone from Milan, the Milanese listener wouldn’t understand a single word!

Why Does Italy Have So Many Dialects?

The dialects spoken across Italy form one of the richest and most diverse linguistic treasures in Europe. The country’s intricate history, marked by nearly a thousand years of political fragmentation and cultural variety, has fostered a remarkable multilingual landscape. This linguistic diversity is not only the result of the coexistence between standard Italian and linguistic minorities – such as German in South Tyrol or French in Aosta Valley – but also the presence of three indigenous minority languages that evolved in isolation from neighboring linguistic regions.

Moreover, Italy is home to numerous unofficial and non-standardized languages, still widely labeled as “dialects” by the general population and institutions, including academic circles. While the term “dialect” often fails to do justice to their true linguistic significance, I will use it here for the sake of simplicity and clarity.

Italian: The Official Language

With the exception of a few foreign languages introduced through modern migration, the languages spoken in Italy are predominantly Indo-European, with the vast majority belonging to the Romance family, derived from Latin. Italian, the official language of the Italian Republic, stands out as the closest living language to Latin. It traces its roots to the literary variant of the Tuscan vernacular, which first gained prominence through the works of “The Three Crowns of Italian Literature” – Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio – around the 13th century. Over the centuries, this vernacular evolved into modern Italian, eventually becoming the linguistic standard adopted by the various pre-unification states from the 16th century onward.

However, Italian, primarily a written language used in literature and public administration, was spoken by only a small segment of the population at the time of Italy’s political unification in 1860, largely composed of the educated elite. According to Tullio De Mauro, a prominent Italian linguist, just 2.5% of the population spoke Italian, while Arrigo Castellani, another esteemed linguist and philologist, placed the figure at closer to 10%.

The widespread adoption of Italian as a spoken language began only in the 20th century, propelled by compulsory education, urbanization, internal migrations, and the rise of mass media such as newspapers and television. Although modern Italian is firmly rooted in the Tuscan vernacular, the standard language has integrated elements and vocabulary from other regional dialects. Tuscan contributed the foundational grammar, syntax, and phonetics that define Italian today.

For those intrigued by fake news, some even claim that the Italian language derives from Sicilian – I’d love it, I’m Sicilian! However, this represents a fundamental misinterpretation of Italy’s linguistic history, which I can summarize as follows: while it’s true that Tuscan literature was influenced by Sicilian literature (the first poetic experience in the vernacular of medieval Italy), it is incorrect to apply the same reasoning to the language itself, as language and literature are distinct entities. While Italian literature owes much to the influence of Sicilian poetry, the Italian language did not originate in Sicily and is not derived from Sicilian.

The Classification of Italian Dialects

Italy is a vibrant mosaic of linguistic diversity, with each region proudly maintaining its own distinct dialect. Within the regions, the variations are truly remarkable, often differing significantly from one town to the next. For instance, in Sicily alone, there are nine provinces, each nurturing its own “version” of Sicilian, distinguished by unique vocabulary and distinct phonetic rhythms. Even within a single province, further nuances emerge. In my hometown of Messina, the phrase “L’ho preso” (I took it) is expressed as ’u pigghiai, whereas just 10 kilometers away in the town of Saponara, it becomes ’u pigghioi!

Despite this extraordinary variety, Italian dialects can be broadly categorized into 4 main macro-groups, based on phonetic, morphological, lexical, and syntactic differences, as well as their geographical distribution. Here is a commonly accepted classification:

1. Northern Dialects

• Gallo-Italic group: Piedmontese, Lombard, Emilian-Romagnol, Ligurian.
• Venetian group: Western, Central, and Eastern Venetian.
• Ladino group: Dolomitic Ladin and Friulian.

2. Central Dialects

• Tuscan: Florentine and other Tuscan varieties.
• Central group: Romanesco, Umbrian, Central Marchigiano, and Northern Laziale.

3. Southern Dialects

• Intermediate Southern: Campanian, Abruzzese, Molisan, and Northern Apulian.
• Extreme Southern: Northern Calabrese, Salentino, and Sicilian.

4. Sardinian-Corsican Dialects

• Sardinian: Logudorese, Campidanese, and Nuorese (linguistically autonomous varieties).
• Corsican: Northern and Southern Corsican (closer to archaic Tuscan).

Among all of them, the most renowned and widely spoken Italian dialects are:

• Venetian 
• Neapolitan 
• Friulian 
• Piedmontese 
• Sardinian 
• Lombard 
• Emilian 
• Romagnol 
• Sicilian 
• Ligurian

Italian Dialects Recognized as “Minority Languages”

In Italy, some linguistic varieties traditionally labeled as “dialects” have achieved official recognition as minority languages, owing to their rich histories, unique structures, and pronounced differences from standard Italian. This recognition, governed primarily by the Italian law No. 482 of 1999, ensures the protection and preservation of these historical linguistic minorities.

Here’s a closer look at the Italian dialects granted official status as “minority languages”, elevating them to the rank of fully-fledged languages:

1. Sardinian: Spoken in Sardinia, it boasts two primary variants, Logudorese and Campidanese. Its archaic structure and significant divergence from Italian establish it as a language entirely distinct from its Romance relatives.
2. Friulian: A Rhaeto-Romance language spoken in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Friulian represents a linguistic tradition distinct from both Italian and Venetian.
3. Ladin: Found in the Dolomites (Trentino-Alto Adige and Veneto), Ladin is another Rhaeto-Romance language, closely related to Friulian and Romansh, the latter spoken in neighboring Switzerland.
4. Occitan: This Western Romance language is spoken in select Alpine valleys of Piedmont, reflecting centuries of cultural exchange across the French-Italian border.
5. Franco-Provençal: Present in Alpine areas of Piedmont and the Aosta Valley, Franco-Provençal bridges the linguistic gap between French and Italian traditions.
6. Gallurese: Spoken in the Gallura region of Sardinia, Gallurese is a Romance language of the Sardinian-Corsican type, with features distinct from both standard Italian and Sardinian.
7. Sassarese: Also known as Turritano, it emerged as a lingua franca in the 12th century, rooted in Tuscan-Corsican influences. Over the centuries, it developed independently, shaped by Ligurian, Catalan, Spanish, and Logudorese Sardinian elements.
8. Algherese Catalan: A unique variant of archaic Catalan, Algherese is still actively spoken in the city of Alghero, Sardinia, a linguistic legacy of Catalonia’s historical presence on the island.
9. Griko-Italian: The Greek linguistic minority in Italy is composed of two enclaves: Bovesia in Calabria and Grecia Salentina in Apulia. Together, these areas form the last vestiges of Italy’s Hellenic-speaking communities, complemented by the Greek-speaking population of Messina, Sicily.

What About the Other Dialects?

The majority of Italian dialects, despite not being officially recognized as minority languages, are far from being mere variations of Italian, as previously mentioned. This is why, when speaking with an Italian, regardless of the dialect they speak, they will assuredly claim that their dialect is not just a dialect, but a true language in its own right. And while this is true, it’s common to encounter misleading or incorrect information.

For instance, a quick search online to determine whether Sicilian or Neapolitan are recognized as official languages by UNESCO will yield numerous results claiming that they are, with some even asserting that they are part of UNESCO’s World Heritage list. However, this is not true. But it is true that Neapolitan and Sicilian are listed as endangered languages in the Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger.

Moreover, both Sicilian and Neapolitan are included on the official portal of the organization responsible for the ISO 639-3 standard, the internationally recognized standard that assigns unique codes to languages around the world. Each code represents a distinct language, grounded in both linguistic and cultural criteria. For Neapolitan, the code is ISO 639-3 nap, while for Sicilian it’s ISO 639-3 scn. While this standard is not directly affiliated with UNESCO, it’s widely utilized by academic institutions and international organizations to classify and document languages.

In addition to Sicilian and Neapolitan, other Italian dialects with their own ISO language codes are Venetian, Ligurian, Lombard, Emilian, Piedmontese, as well as Sardinian (Logudorese and Campidanese), Friulian, and Ladin, all of which are also recognized by the Italian State as “minority languages”.

Thus, it can be said that, alongside the dialects acknowledged as “minority languages”, there exist other autonomous idioms – true languages, from a strictly linguistic and typological standpoint – that can be defined as “regional languages of Italy”. So why are only some dialects granted minority language status by the Italian State? The answer lies in the fact that recognition as a language is based on a combination of cultural, linguistic, historical, and local criteria. Not all regional languages in Italy are granted the same legal status, despite many of them possessing a well-defined linguistic identity.

Moreover, even if not officially recognized as minority languages, these dialects boast a rich literary, musical, and oral tradition. Sicilian, with its own unique grammar and deep cultural heritage, and Neapolitan, so influential in the realms of music and poetry in Southern Italy, serve as prime examples of this enduring cultural wealth.

Those That Can Be Considered Dialects

The definition of “dialect” is undoubtedly subject to many misunderstandings. It often conflates the strictly linguistic dimension with the sociological one, and in practice, very different linguistic codes are referred to as “dialects”: the Romance languages of Italy, with their distinct history, evolution, and structure compared to Italian; and the ancient and modern variants of Italian itself.

While the former should unquestionably be regarded as autonomous languages, the term “dialect” (in its most precise sense, referring to a local variety of a language) can be applied to the latter. To further clarify the situation, here is a brief overview of the “dialects of Italian”, which I will present as though they were close relatives of the language.

Florentine Dialect: The Twin of Italian 

As previously mentioned, both ancient and modern Italian are deeply intertwined with the Florentine vernacular. In the 16th century, a debate emerged over which form of the vernacular should replace Latin as the prestigious language, and ultimately, the literary Florentine model from the 14th century was chosen. As a result, written Italian was shaped by this “golden” Florentine of the 1300s, while the “silver” Florentine of the 1500s continued its evolution. It can be said that Italian has preserved the pronunciation of the ancient Florentine while expunging some of its regional peculiarities: a kind of Florentine “purged” of its more localized features.

Tuscan Dialects: The Siblings of Italian 

While literary Italian (later the national language) and the dialect of the city of Florence and its surroundings followed their own path, how was it spoken in the rest of Tuscany? The answer is simple: alongside the official language and that of the capital, the other Tuscan variants continued to flourish and develop, directly inheriting the legacy of Latin and being closely connected to Florentine. It would be a mistake, in fact, to think that Tuscan is spoken everywhere in the same way as in Florence!

Among the various variants, the Massese, Lucchese, Pisano, Senese, Livornese, and Aretino deserve mention. Of course, the Tuscan dialects all bear similarities and are related to Florentine, but each has its own unique features, which often seem “archaic” to those who are not native to the region.

Dialects of Central Italy: The Cousins of Italian 

While in the North and South of Italy distinct languages are spoken, and in Tuscany a series of dialects closely tied to Italian exist, what is spoken in the rest of Central Italy? Here, we encounter a “linguistic continuum” that is not strictly Tuscan but is difficult to categorize as an independent dialect.

For linguists, this dialectal group is referred to as “Mediano”, encompassing the spoken languages of central Marche, Umbria, Abruzzo, and Lazio. These regions have a distinct history from Tuscany, yet remain closely connected to it, both geographically and culturally. While they diverge from the Florentine model and standard Italian in terms of phonetic evolution, morphology, and vocabulary, they often retain many similarities. The most famous example is undoubtedly Romanesco in Rome, which gradually shed its more localized traits to evolve into a city variant of Italian.

Regional Italians: The Offspring of Italian 

With the rise of Italian as the national language throughout the 20th century, new forms of Italian emerged: the so-called “regional Italians”, which, more than any of the other variants I’ve mentioned, can truly be considered “dialects of Italian”. In fact, they are fully local variants because they represent how Italian has adapted to different territories.

Depending on the region, often in conflict with or replacing local languages, Italian has acquired various regional nuances, distinguishing it from other variants spoken across Italy, while still preserving a shared origin. This is not unlike the difference between English in London and English in New York.

The varieties of regional Italian follow a pattern that loosely mirrors the linguistic division of Italy’s local languages. However, regional Italian remains something entirely distinct from the regional languages themselves. Each of these dialects of Italian (further subdivided into numerous local variants) displays distinct characteristics in phonetics, morphology, and vocabulary. An Italian speaker from Milan, one from Naples, and one from Rome all speak the same language, yet their differences are readily apparent in pronunciation, rhythm, grammar, word choice, and idiomatic expressions.

Languages of Historical Minorities

In addition to the list of Italian dialects and languages, it is important to include those spoken by historical minorities – foreign languages that have become deeply rooted in Italy.

1. Albanian (Arbëreshë): Spoken by Arbëreshë communities spread across Calabria, Sicily, Molise, and Puglia. In Sicily, in the mountains to the west of Palermo, lies the town of Piana degli Albanesi, known as the heart of Sicilian Arbëreshë culture. Founded in the 1400s by Albanian refugees fleeing the Ottoman advance, it remains a focal point of their rich heritage.
2. German (including Bavarian, South Tyrolean, Cimbrian, and Mòcheno variants): Widely spoken in South Tyrol and in a number of isolated communities, such as the Cimbri in Veneto and the Mòcheni in Trentino. Recognized by the Italian State as a minority language, German holds co-official status in the region, meaning it is an official language alongside Italian. In many towns, German is so prevalent that road signs display the German version first, followed by the Italian one!
3. Slovene: Spoken primarily in the provinces of Trieste, Gorizia, and Udine in Friuli-Venezia Giulia. It enjoys recognition as a minority language within the region.
4. Croatian (or Molise Croatian): Spoken by some communities in Molise (Kroati italiani), this language is officially recognized as a minority language.
5. French: Spoken in the Aosta Valley, French is officially recognized as a minority language and enjoys co-official status in the region.
6. Walser: A unique variant of southern German dialect, similar to archaic Swiss German. Officially recognized as a minority language, it is spoken in parts of the Aosta Valley and Piedmont.

Safeguarding Linguistic Heritage

In conclusion, Italy’s linguistic diversity is a testament to its rich cultural and historical heritage. From the distinct dialects spoken in different regions to the regional languages that still thrive, Italy’s linguistic landscape is a mosaic of traditions and identities. While Standard Italian unites the country, the persistence of local dialects and languages highlights the enduring importance of preserving this diversity. Understanding and appreciating Italy’s linguistic richness not only enhances our knowledge of its culture but also emphasizes the importance of safeguarding linguistic heritage for future generations.